Ṭôv and Ra' in the Early
Israelite Monarchy

I. Context: Early Israelite Thought
(12th-9th Centuries BC)

Investigating the concepts of "good" and "evil" in the Hebrew scriptures from the 12th to 9th centuries BC requires both theological and historical reconstruction. This designated timeframe—spanning the Late Bronze Age collapse (c. 1200 BC) and the rise of the early Israelite monarchy—presents a formidable methodological challenge: no biblical manuscript in its final form can be definitively dated to this period. This historical constraint means direct source material confirming the precise views of the 12th to 9th centuries BC is unavailable.

The inherent instability of this transition, marked by geopolitical shifts and the consolidation of centralized power, subsequently shaped Israel's literary efforts. These efforts focused on themes of national identity, political legitimacy, and establishing divine order against internal fragmentation and external domination. Therefore, a responsible analysis must engage directly with the complex and often contentious field of biblical source criticism to identify the earliest discernible literary layers embedded within the received text. Isolating these proto-Israelite concepts of cosmic order and dysfunction necessitates applying established, though debated, critical models to partition the Pentateuchal sources. Analyzing "Early Israelite Thought" in this period rests entirely on the assumption that archaic conceptual blocks, reflecting this early monarchy context, have been preserved within the later redacted compositions.

The Documentary Hypothesis and the Traditional Dating of the Yahwist Source

The classical scholarly model for this endeavor has been the Documentary Hypothesis (DH), which posits that the Torah (the first five books of the Bible) is a composite of at least four primary sources, including the Yahwist, or J source. This foundational model, which gained traction through the work of scholars like Julius Wellhausen, systematically explained the linguistic, thematic, and theological differences found across the Pentateuch. Among the sources identified by the DH, the Yahwist source was traditionally dated to the era of the United Monarchy under David and Solomon, approximately the 10th to 9th centuries BC.

This traditional dating placed the J source squarely within the user's period of interest. The primary rationale for dating J to the Solomonic period (c. 950 BC) was theological and political: the source was proposed to justify the newly unified state. Its narrative framework—detailing Creation, the Fall, the Flood, and the Covenant with Abraham—can be interpreted as a grand ideological charter. This charter asserts that the cosmic order (ṭôv) established by YHWH provides the absolute blueprint for the Davidic monarch to establish and maintain terrestrial social and political order. The J source is further distinguished by its characteristic use of the divine name YHWH prior to its formal revelation to Moses, its vivid and often anthropomorphic portrayal of God, and its intense narrative focus on the political geography of the southern kingdom of Judah, thereby legitimizing the Davidic dynasty.

The Modern Revisionist Critique and the Late Dating Consensus (Schmid and Van Seters)

However, this early dating is no longer a consensus in contemporary biblical studies. Since the mid-1970s, influential scholarship, notably from figures like Hans Heinrich Schmid and John Van Seters, has seriously questioned the traditional chronology. Schmid's seminal 1976 study demonstrated that the J source appears to exhibit knowledge of prophetic works originating in the 8th and 7th centuries BC. This led scholars to suggest a much later composition, perhaps during the late monarchy or even the Babylonian exile (6th century BC). This analysis implies that the chronological flow is often inverse to the traditional DH model, with prophetic critique frequently preceding the detailed historical narratives of J and the Deuteronomistic histories.

This revisionism has fragmented the scholarly landscape. Some scholars have abandoned the classical documentary model entirely, favoring supplementary or fragmentary hypotheses that envision a more gradual accretion of traditions over time. If scholars accept the later dating (7th-6th century BC), the theological function of the J source shifts dramatically from royal justification to theodicean explanation. The widespread societal dysfunction (ra') depicted in Genesis narratives—such as the escalating violence leading to the Flood—functions retrospectively as an allegorical mirror reflecting the national disaster of the Babylonian Exile. In this light, the J narrative functions to explain that Judah’s calamity (ra') was not a sign of YHWH’s defeat, but a sovereignly ordained consequence of profound and widespread moral ra' (wickedness) within the kingdom.

J as the Earliest Coherent Ideological Layer

Despite the ongoing debate over the final redaction date, the Yahwist source remains the most viable window into the conceptual world of the early Israelite monarchy because it preserves core ideological layers reflective of the period. The source's thematic preoccupations—the establishment of the Davidic line, the political geography of Judah, and its complex relationship with neighboring states like Edom—anchor its core traditions firmly in the socio-political realities of the 10th to 8th centuries BC. Furthermore, archaeological and epigraphic evidence confirms the existence of sophisticated literary capacity, such as the development of a national Paleo-Hebrew script and cursive features documented in 9th-century inscriptions.

Crucially, internal ideological critique of Genesis 2-11 reveals an underlying tension that complicates the identification of J as solely "Royal Theology". Analysis suggests the author held sympathy for the Palestinian agricultural community, rather than the urban royal court. This agrarian perspective manifests in a strong anti-city-state bias. The progenitors of city culture (Cain, and his descendant Lamech, the ancestor of city crafts) are linked to introducing and spreading excessive violence (ra') and institutionalized revenge. The ultimate good (ṭôv) for this author is adherence to a functional, relational, agrarian order. This stands in ideological tension with the centralized, non-covenantal power structure symbolized by the city. This complexity reinforces the report's central premise: ṭôv fundamentally represents functional order, which the agrarian-minded narrator contrasts favorably with the dysfunction generated by urban political power. Therefore, this report analyzes the concepts of "good" and "evil" as they function within the narrative world of the Yahwist source, treating it as the earliest coherent ideological layer preserving the foundational framework of the early monarchic period.

II. The Semantics of Harmony and Disruption: ṭôv and ra'

Deconstructing ṭôv: Beyond Abstract Moral Virtue to Functional Perfection

To comprehend the early Israelite concepts of "good" and "evil," examining the semantic range of the Hebrew terms themselves is essential. The words ṭôv (טוֹב) and ra' (רָע) possess a breadth of meaning that reveals a worldview grounded in concrete realities of function, benefit, and cosmic order, rather than abstract philosophical ethics. The modern, Platonized tendency is to interpret ṭôv as a purely abstract moral quality. However, a lexical analysis of ṭôv in the earliest biblical texts reveals a primary meaning centered on functionality, quality, benefit, and the active promotion of life.

ṭôv in the Cosmology: Functional Assessment of the Created Order

While the Priestly (P) source contains the Genesis 1 creation account, its repeated refrain, "and God saw that it was good (ṭôv)," establishes a foundational Israelite concept inherited and developed by the J source. When God declares the light, the land, the vegetation, and the living creatures ṭôv, this is not a statement of their moral virtue but a definitive declaration of their perfect functionality. The cosmos is thus a well-ordered system where each component works exactly as designed, fulfilling its created purpose. This understanding of ṭôv as "functional" or "well-ordered" serves as the bedrock upon which subsequent ethical meanings are built. For instance, light (’or) itself is neither morally good nor bad; it is declared ṭôv solely because it fulfills the organizational function of separating light from darkness and establishing structure. This perspective aligns with analyses of Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) creation literature, which often prioritize bringing order and functionality out of disorder, rather than the *material* creation of things.

ṭôv in the J Narrative: Quality, Benefit, and Relational Equilibrium

The Yahwist narrative in Genesis 2 utilizes ṭôv consistently in this pragmatic sense. The trees in the Garden of Eden are described as "pleasant to the sight and good (ṭôv) for food" (Genesis 2:9), meaning they perfectly fulfill their designated function of providing both sustenance and aesthetic pleasure. The land of Havilah is noted for its "good (ṭôv) gold" (Genesis 2:12), signifying high quality and intrinsic value, wholly divorced from abstract moral evaluation.

Perhaps the most theologically significant use of ṭôv in this context is its negative formulation in Genesis 2:18: "it is not good (lōʾ-ṭôv) that the man should be alone". This declaration represents the first imperfection noted in the ordered world. It is not a moral condemnation of solitude, but a divine assessment of a situation that is incomplete, relationally dysfunctional, and therefore not yet fulfilling its intended purpose for the human creature within God's designed order. The absence of complementary companionship is defined as functionally lacking. The subsequent creation of the woman, establishing a relational equilibrium and completing the original design, is the divine solution that transforms the situation into ṭôv.

ṭôv as Generative and Life-Promoting Outcome (Genesis 50:20)

Expanding on the idea of perfect functionality, ṭôv carries the strong connotation of that which actively generates, promotes, and sustains life. The created world is ṭôv because it constitutes a thriving, harmonious ecosystem where life is empowered to flourish. A tree is ṭôv not merely for its existing fruit but because it contains the potential for future life—the seed for an entire orchard. This concept intrinsically links "goodness" to divine blessing, fertility, and alignment with God's purpose for a world teeming with viable, propagating life. This generative sense of ṭôv is powerfully illustrated in Joseph's climactic statement to his brothers in Genesis 50:20: "You intended to harm me, but God intended it for good (ṭôv) to accomplish what is now being done, the saving of many lives". Here, ṭôv is the beneficial, redemptive, and ultimately life-saving outcome that divine sovereignty masterfully brings forth, even from a malicious human act.

The Expansive Range of ra': From Physical Harm to Calamity and Wickedness

In direct opposition to ṭôv, the term ra' (רָע), along with its related noun rōaʿ (רֹעַ), encompasses an equally wide spectrum of meanings. Deriving from the root rāʿaʿ, meaning "to be bad" or "to be evil," its foundational meaning is concrete and practical. The purely moral domain represents a specific, advanced application of the broader concept of disorder.

ra' as Physical Manifestation of Poor Quality and Dysfunction

At its most basic level, ra' describes that which is physically harmful, of poor quality, or aesthetically displeasing, representing the inverse of functional and beneficial perfection. This physical usage is demonstrated when Pharaoh's emaciated cows are described as "very ugly (ra') and gaunt" in Genesis 41:19. This serves as a sign of impending famine that will ravage the functional natural order. Similarly, the spies sent into Canaan bring back an "evil (ra') report" (Numbers 14:37), meaning one that is discouraging and actively harmful to the morale and success of the community. The word denotes tangible threats such as poisonous herbs, malignant diseases, or even a bad temper. This establishes the core concept of ra' as anything that is dysfunctional, harmful to well-being, or contrary to the optimal, ordered state defined by ṭôv.

ra' as Sovereignly Ordained Calamity and Disaster (The Isaiah 45:7 Problem)

A crucial and frequently misunderstood dimension of ra' is its use to signify calamity, adversity, or disaster. This form of ra' is not a moral evil committed by a person but rather a harmful event experienced by them. Job unambiguously expresses this in Job 2:10: "Shall we receive good from God, and shall we not receive evil (ra')?". Here, ra' signifies externally experienced hardship or disaster, distinguishing it from internal moral fault.

This polysemy is essential for interpreting challenging theological statements like Isaiah 45:7. YHWH declares: "I form light and create darkness, I make well-being (shalom) and create evil (ra')". In this clear poetic parallel, ra' is positioned as the antithesis of shalom (peace, wholeness, well-being) and is thus consistently translated by modern scholarship as "calamity," "disaster," or "woe". This assertion of divine authorship over ra' as calamity demonstrates that in the early Israelite worldview, God was seen as the absolute sovereign orchestrator of all life's experiences, both the beneficial (ṭôv) and the disastrous (ra'). This theological move simultaneously avoids cosmic dualism and consolidates all power within YHWH's unrivaled domain.

ra' as Moral Wickedness: Intentional Corruption of Shalom

From this foundation of functional and physical dysfunction and harm, the concept of ra' extends powerfully into the moral sphere. Moral evil is specifically defined as the willful introduction of disorder and harm into the created world by a moral agent. This concept is centrally expressed in the J source's assessment of humanity before the flood: "the LORD saw that the wickedness of humankind was great on the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts was only evil (ra') continually" (Genesis 6:5). This statement indicates a deep-seated corruption of the human will that consistently produces actions contrary to God's created order.

The linguistic evidence therefore mandates a conceptual framework where the primary axis is not abstract morality but cosmic and social order. An act is morally ra' precisely because it is an intentional violation of the divinely established order, an introduction of dysfunction that diminishes life and fractures community. Consequently, the ultimate "good" (ṭôv) is not mere adherence to rules but active, intentional participation in maintaining shalom—the holistic state of functional harmony. Conversely, "evil" (ra') is any force or action that actively undermines this state of shalom.

III. The Rupture of Order: The Genesis of Evil in the Yahwist Narrative

The Tree of the Knowledge of ṭôv va-ra': Seizing Judicial and Ontological Prerogative

The narrative of the Garden of Eden in Genesis 2-3, a cornerstone of the J source, revolves around the "tree of the knowledge of good and evil" (ēṣ haddaʿaṯ ṭôv wārāʿ). Understanding the function and meaning of this tree is paramount to unlocking the early Israelite conception of the origin of evil.

Interpreting the Merism: Total Knowledge vs. Defining Autonomy

The Hebrew phrase ṭôv wārāʿ ("good and evil") can function as a merism. A merism is a literary device where polar opposites are used to express a totality, potentially implying "knowledge of everything" or omniscience. This interpretation suggests that the fruit offered a godlike, complete comprehension of all things, aligning with the concept of maximal knowledge often ascribed to the divine.

However, the prevailing interpretation, supported by the narrative context, suggests a more specific and consequential meaning: the "knowledge" at stake is not merely intellectual awareness but the autonomous power to define reality—to decide for oneself what is beneficial (ṭôv) and what is harmful (ra'). Alternative scholarly interpretations further refine this idea, suggesting the phrase refers to legal maturity or judicial skill—the power to administer reward and punishment. This judicial capacity to wield ultimate power is fundamentally a divine prerogative, meaning the transgression involves an ontological usurpation. The humans’ desire was thus not simply to acquire information, but to assume the divine role as the independent source and ultimate arbiter of value, judgment, and consequence.

The Serpent’s Incitement: Rebellion Against Creaturely Boundaries

Before the transgression, YHWH functions as the singular, absolute arbiter of ṭôv and ra'. He determines that solitude is lōʾ-ṭôv, provides a relational solution, and designates the specific boundaries of sustenance and prohibition. His command not to eat from the one tree serves as the boundary that defines the human's creaturely status. They are mandated to live within the order God has provided, trusting His definitions of what is life-giving and what is not. The serpent's tempting promise—"you will be like God, knowing good and evil" (Genesis 3:5)—is therefore a direct incitement to usurp this divine prerogative. It is a call to claim moral and ontological autonomy, relocating the source of value from the Creator to the creature.

The First Sin as an Attack on Divine Sovereignty

By eating the fruit, the humans rejected their intended dependence on the Creator and claimed the sovereign right to define their own good. This introduces a principle of self-interest and disorder into a created system designed for harmonious, relational dependency. The first sin is therefore understood as an attack on God's sovereignty, an act of pride that fundamentally ruptures the created order. This narrative establishes that ra' (evil/disorder) originates entirely from within the created sphere, as a willful creaturely malfunction, rather than an external, primordial cosmic force.

Consequences as Systemic Dysfunction: The Naturalized Unraveling of the Created World

The divine pronouncements in Genesis 3:14-19 are often narrowly categorized as arbitrary punishments. Within the framework of order versus dysfunction, however, they are better understood as the logical, inherent consequences of the humans' choice. They represent the natural unfolding of dysfunction (ra') once the vital, ordering connection to the source of life is severed.

Fractured Relationships and the Struggle with the Adamah

The immediate systemic breakdown manifests in fractured relationships. Enmity replaces the harmony between humanity and the animal kingdom. The generative process of childbirth becomes fraught with pain. And the cooperative relationship with the earth (adamah), from which the man (adam) was formed, degenerates into a struggle of toil and resistance. Scholarly analysis suggests that the expulsion and curse send Adam into the harsh reality of a peasant on the Palestinian uplands, forcing him to till meagre soil. The intended ease of the garden (ṭôv) is replaced by the necessary, punishing labor (ra') of the frontier. This aspect reinforces the J narrative’s subtle agrarian bias. Order is associated with simple, sustainable tilling, contrasting with the excessive, specialized labor characteristic of the centralized urban centers often associated with servitude in ANE epics.

Mortality as the Ultimate Result of Disconnection from ṭôv

Ultimately, mortality, the ultimate dysfunction, becomes their fate. The loss of access to the Tree of Life and the subsequent systemic breakdown represent a world no longer operating according to its original, ṭôv design. Death is thus the final physical manifestation of ra'. It is the complete functional failure of the biological system due to the intentional disconnection from the source of eternal, divine order.

The J Source Theodicy: Human Corruption and Divine Retribution

The J source's primeval history traces the catastrophic ripple effect of this initial act of disorder. It thereby establishes a foundational theodicy—an explanation for the existence of suffering and calamity in a world created by a good God. This theodicy is built upon the reciprocal causality between human moral failure and divine judicial consequence.

The Progressive Moral ra': Cain, Lamech, and the Pervasive Wickedness

The initial consequence of leaving Eden is profound social disintegration. Cain’s fratricide of Abel introduces violence, alienation, and bloodshed into the human family—a stark manifestation of social ra'. This moral decay is shown to escalate rapidly, paralleling the rise of urban culture. Cain is presented not only as the first murderer but also as the founder of the city. His descendant, Lamech, boasts of his murderous revenge. Lamech, potentially functioning as a cipher for melek (‘king’), is utilized by the author to expose royal urban culture as the "worst fosterer of revenge of all". This links the centralized monarchy and city-states to the systemic spread of violence and sin (ra').

The Flood as Sovereign Calamitous ra': Un-creation and Re-establishment of Order

The theme of progressive human corruption culminates in the flood narrative, which provides a clear rationale for the cataclysm. "the LORD saw that the wickedness (ra'ah) of humankind was great on the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts was only evil (ra') continually" (Genesis 6:5). This pervasive moral ra' corrupted the entire created order, necessitating radical divine intervention. The flood is thus depicted as a sovereign act of divine retribution, a just and necessary un-creation intended to cleanse the world of the overwhelming dysfunction introduced by humanity. This narrative establishes a recurring theological pattern: humanity introduces disorder through sin (ra'); God responds with a just, calamitous consequence (ra'); and yet, He preserves a remnant (Noah, pointedly referred to as a "man of the soil," in contrast to the city-builders) through whom He can re-establish order. J’s foundational theodicy resolves the problem of evil not through cosmic dualism, but by asserting the unbreakable causal link between human moral ra' and divine calamitous ra'. The calamity is neither random nor the work of a rival god; it is the just, sovereign response of YHWH to human moral failure, positioning YHWH as the absolute, unified orchestrator of all historical consequence.

IV. Israel's Polemic: Redefining Chaos in the Ancient Near East

The Central ANE Preoccupation: Order, Chaos, and Creation by Conflict

The early Israelite understanding of good and evil as order (ṭôv) and dysfunction (ra') was forged in a rich and competitive intellectual environment. It was consciously shaped by the dominant cosmologies of the great powers of the Ancient Near East (ANE). The struggle to establish and maintain order (cosmos) against the ever-present threat of chaos (Chaoskampf) was a central preoccupation of ANE thought, forming the basis of their creation myths, religious rituals, and political ideologies.

Mesopotamian Cosmology: The Violent Chaoskampf (Tiamat/Marduk)

In Mesopotamian cosmology, exemplified by the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish, the world is created through a violent cosmic battle. Creation begins with two primordial, co-equal divine entities: Apsu and Tiamat, the latter of whom personifies the chaotic and destructive sea. Order is achieved when the hero-god Marduk slays Tiamat and uses her split corpse to form the heavens and the earth. In this worldview, chaos is a primordial, divine, and eternally threatening force that must be violently subdued. Order is therefore contingent upon the continuous exertion of divine power. Furthermore, humanity's creation is a servile afterthought, intended to relieve the major gods of their labor.

Egyptian Cosmology: The Perpetual Struggle for Ma'at Against Isfet

Egyptian cosmology offers a distinct model based on perpetual balance rather than a single, decisive victory. The foundational principle of the universe is Ma'at. This is a complex concept embodying cosmic order, truth, justice, and harmony. Ma'at is in constant, cyclical struggle against its antithesis, Isfet—chaos, falsehood, and evil. Isfet is not a primordial creator-god but an ever-present disruptive force that threatens to unravel the created order. It is personified by the chaos-serpent Apophis, who must be battled nightly by the sun god Ra. The primary role of the Pharaoh, as divine representative, and of all humanity, was to actively maintain Ma'at through ethical living and ritual, thereby keeping the forces of Isfet at bay.

Canaanite Parallels: Baal’s Kingship through Conflict with Yamm and Mot

The immediate cultural context for early Israel was Canaan, whose mythology, known from the Ugaritic texts, features the Chaoskampf. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle narrates the storm-god Baal's rise to kingship through his victories over rivals, Prince Yamm (the chaotic sea) and Mot (death). Baal’s battle with Yamm is the classic West Semitic Chaoskampf, securing his dominion and ensuring fertility and terrestrial order. Yamm, the antagonist, was perceived as a rival cosmological force. Scholarly findings indicate he was still considered worthy of sacrificial ritual, suggesting the struggle was primarily over the status of kingship and control, rather than the absolute conflict between metaphysical good and evil.

The Israelite Innovation: The Demotion of Chaos and Unrivaled Sovereignty of YHWH

The Hebrew scriptures are rich with imagery drawn from this shared Canaanite mythological pool—the raging sea (yam), Leviathan, and the dragon (tannin) are used as potent symbols of chaos and evil. However, the biblical authors systematically and radically subvert the meaning of these symbols. In texts like Psalm 74, Job 26, and Isaiah 51, YHWH is not depicted as engaging in a desperate struggle with the sea monster. Rather, He has already "crushed Rahab" and "pierced the dragon" in primordial time as an effortless display of absolute, unrivaled power. The sea is consequently demoted from a rival deity to a mere creature whose boundaries are set by divine decree (Job 38:8-11).

This demotion of chaos represents Israel’s most significant theological innovation. By stripping the most powerful ANE symbols of chaos of their divine status, the biblical narratives eliminate the theological need for cosmic dualism. Since YHWH has no divine rival, the universe is not a battleground between evenly matched forces, and creation is the product of a single, unopposed will. The logical consequence of this theological move is profound: if there is no external, primordial divine adversary, the source of disorder and dysfunction (ra') must be located internally, squarely in the rebellious choices of God's creatures. The locus of evil is thus shifted from the cosmic sphere of myth to the historical and relational sphere of the human-divine encounter.

Conclusion: From Cosmic Dualism to Historical and Covenantal Conflict

The result of this polemical dialogue is the relocation of the true conflict from the cosmic plane of myth to the historical and relational plane of humanity. The battle is not between YHWH and Tiamat, but between YHWH's sovereign will for an ordered, life-giving world (ṭôv) and humanity's inherent inclination toward self-serving dysfunction (ra') that brings about death. This historical focus provides the essential framework for covenant theology. "Good" (ṭôv) becomes synonymous with alignment with YHWH's covenantal instruction (torah), which serves as the blueprint for a functional society. "Evil" (ra') is defined as the violation of that covenant, an act that inevitably leads to social decay and divine judgment in the form of calamity (ra').

Conclusion: Order vs. Dysfunction

The conceptual world presented in the earliest strata of the Hebrew scriptures, centered on the ṭôv vs. ra' dichotomy in the Yahwist source, fundamentally diverges from later abstract moral philosophy. The analysis confirms that the foundational axis is Order vs. Dysfunction: ṭôv signifies that which is functional, well-ordered, beneficial, and life-promoting, in absolute accordance with the Creator's design. Conversely, ra' signifies that which is dysfunctional, chaotic, harmful, and death-dealing. The Yahwist narrative establishes that moral evil (ra') is not a metaphysical puzzle for God to solve, but a historical problem originating entirely in Creaturely Rebellion—the choice to usurp God's prerogative to define reality. This rupture introduces disorder into all domains: the self (pride), the environment (adamah), and the social sphere (fratricide and city violence). Finally, the resulting theodicy asserts YHWH's absolute sovereignty. It avoids dualism by demonstrating that calamitous ra' is a tool of divine justice—a direct, reciprocal consequence of human moral ra'.

Implications for Later Covenantal and Prophetic Ethics

While this framework is grounded in the concrete realities of order and function, it naturally gives rise to a robust and comprehensive moral system. The definition of ṭôv as holistic social harmony (shalom) necessitates that theological fidelity be inseparable from practical ethics. The subsequent prophetic traditions, particularly those arising during the 8th to 6th centuries BC, directly inherit this foundational concept. They define injustice—social exploitation and oppression—as the ultimate moral ra' because it introduces systemic dysfunction that fractures the covenant community and diminishes life. This moral failure is then the catalyst that triggers the inevitable national calamity (ra') administered by the sovereign YHWH. This early, integrated understanding—where cosmology, theology, and practical ethics are unified—provides the essential foundation for the more complex legal, prophetic, and philosophical traditions that developed throughout the remainder of biblical and post-biblical thought.